![]() ![]() ![]() Together, these changes can potentially lead to a disruption in neuroendocrine, behavioral, autonomic, and metabolic functions in adulthood. Abnormal development of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis can further result in long-term alterations in neuropeptide and neurotransmitter synthesis in the central nervous system, as well as glucocorticoid hormone synthesis in the periphery. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis is a complex system of neuroendocrine pathways and feedback loops that function to maintain physiological homeostasis. 2Department of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Phoenix, AZ, United States.1Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States.
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